Beyond the Standardized Testing - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2491 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category Management Essay Level High school Tags: Standardized Testing Essay Did you like this example? The solution for a better future Four years ago, the General Assembly from The United Nations gathered to discuss ways to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. After a myriad of research and countless hours of debate, the General Assembly agreed that the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) will aid us to reach the goal of a better future. In general, the SDGs aim to solve global challenges such as inequality, poverty, climate, and environmental degradation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Beyond the Standardized Testing" essay for you Create order The fourth SDG is Quality Education† ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education, and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all (Martin, 2015). The UN says Access to inclusive education can help equip locals with the tools required to develop innovative solutions to the worlds greatest problems(2015). In other words, the fourth goal, Quality Education, is the foundation of other Sustainable Development Goals; if we can augment the educational quality, especially for the underdeveloped and secluded communities, the future generation would break from the poverty cycle and would be more aware of the global challenges, thus continue the effort for a better future. The Quality Education will create a higher chance for the future generation to initiate prominent solutions against the ascending global problems. The UN is positive that if we can offer quality education without leaving anyone behind (2015), it will become a key for securing sustainability of our actions f or a better future and reaching the other SDGs. I strongly agree with this statement; the world is slowly but surely approaching the goal of Quality Education†the solution for a better and sustainable future. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS Data Centre), since 2000, the percentage of out-of school children among primary school has declined from 40% to 22% in sub-Saharan Africa and from 20% to 6% in South Asia. Moreover, enrollment in primary education in developing countries has reached 91 percent. For the first time in 2017, the percentage of the American population age 25 and older that completed high school or higher levels of education reached 90 percent (Bureau, 2018, p. 2). The statistics show that more children and young adults are attending school to get secondary education globally. However, there is a long way to go. Just to name three major educational challenges, the UN statistics show us that there are over 265 million children who do not attend school; one school out of seven is over-crowded; the educational gap between rich and poor has worsened 21% since 2008. Therefore, the positive statistics alone cannot confirm whether we are getting closer to the goal of Quality Education: a better assessment system is needed. The accurate assessment system In response to emerging educational challenges, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), signed in 2002 by former President George W. Bush, intended to use Federal governments influence and standardized tests to raise the bar for students academic achievement. The goal of this legislation was to make every student proficient in reading and mathematics by 2014 regardless of background, race, family income, or disability (No child left behind act, 2001). One of the major foci of the NCLB was to, just like the fourth SDG Quality Education, close the achievement gap of students by providing a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education. To confirm the students are meeting the federal requirements, NCLB demanded each state to establish state academic standards and a state testing system (No child left behind act, 2001). Under the 2002 law, therefore, U.S. states were required to take standardized test in reading and mathematics from students in grades 3â€Å" 8 and once in high school. States and schools accordingly started to develop and increase the standardized testing. The standardized testing is based on backwards curriculum design, determining what the students need to learn or to know, then designing the instruction to reach the desired knowledge. In other words, standardized tests focus on essential contents and skills, eliminating time-wasting activities that do not profit the students. It is possible for students to gain proficiency in reading and mathematics because of the backwards curriculum design. The US Department of Education stated in 2004 that If teachers cover subject required by the standards, and teach it well, then students will master the material on which they are tested. Moreover, by assessing how students are doing each year, it creates an opportunity to analyze the current formal school curriculum and determine whether it needs alteration or improvement. If the standardized test scores show national or state decrease, it is obvious that the students are lacking in some skills from the basic benchmark that was created from the NCLB Act. Plus, the standardized tests can tell us which part of the curriculum needs more attention and what school system is performing better than the others. Through analyzing the data and statistics given by the standardized tests, legislators can make decisions to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers and of our school systems. The basic benchmark of standardized test not only inspires improvement but also creates non-discriminatory. The content of the standardized test is the same for every student and school, thus making objective measures of student achievement. Without them, policy makers would have to rely on indiv idual schools and teachers who would most likely want to produce favorable results. Human subjectivity may influence the results of any test; however, standardized testings do not require human to grade them, they are graded by machines†reliable and not subject to bias. In terms of the design and the reliability, standardized testing is fit for measuring the progress of the fourth SDG, Quality Education. The purpose of the Quality Education and NCLB is identical†to ensure inclusive and equitable high-quality education. Just like NCLB, there are many global standardized tests to assess the educational achievement of the world. Therefore, in theory, using the same assessment system that is working for one should work for the other. On a global scale, many alterations are made to improve the standardized tests, but the main concept remains the same. However, are standardized tests valid for measuring the progress of Quality Education of the schools and students around the globe? Many educational theorists and researchers point out facts that show disadvantages of the standardized testing. The flawed testing system For many decades, the scores of standardized test were viewed as the dominant factor for determining academic success. In the recent years, however, more and more U.S. colleges and universities are making test scores optional for the admissions requirement. Globally, even the universities that accept students solely based on their standardized test scores, such as Tokyo University and Mongolian National University, are now requiring personal statements and teacher recommendations. Globally, the standardized test scores are becoming less and less important to accept students for colleges and universities. They are agreeing that the standardized test scores are not the best representation of students achievement in and beyond college. Only from the statistics, after the NCLB Act, U.S. slipped from 18th in the world in Mathematics on the Program for International Student Assessment, to 31st place in 2009 with a similar drop in science and no change in reading. Many researchers and univ ersities conducted researches and studies to support standardized testing is unreliable measure of student performance. A May 2011 National Research Council report found no evidence on efficient test-based incentive programs. Despite using them (the standardized tests) for several decades, policy makers and educators do not yet know how to use test-based incentives to consistently generate positive effects on achievement and to improve education. Moreover in 2001, a study published by the Brookings Institution found that even though there were improvement in test score, it does not necessarily mean changes in learning: 50 to 80% of the year-over-year test score improvements were temporary and caused by fluctuations that had nothing to do with long-term learning. Standardized testing discriminates towards non-English-speaking students and students with special needs. English language learners take tests in English before they could master the language; thus, they are easily confused by tests that contain unfamiliar cultural references. Also, special education students take the same tests as other students; so, they receive few of the accommodations usually provided to them as part of their individualized education plans. It is fair to It is fair to claim that the student of color and disability are unfairly tested. Even if the student do not have a disability, they might have a severe stress from standardized tests. Especially for young children, who are usually not mentally ready for time pressure, standardized tests are able to produce gripping anxiety and make young children vomit or cry, or both. The Sacramento Bee in 2002 reported that test-related jitters, especially among young students, are so common that the Stanford-9 exam in California comes with instructions on what to do with the test booklet in case a student vomits on it. Students are required to take 112 mandated standardized tests from kindergarten classes to the 12th grade, excluding the pilot and mock tests. All the tests make some students constantly in stress, in extreme cases, leading to depression. Other than assessing students basic knowledge, standardized tests are used to reward and punish teachers and schools. According to NCLB, if student standardized test scores did not meet stated goals for test score growth, schools faced penalties such as a loss of federal funding or the diversion of federal funds to pay for private tutoring, transportation costs, and other services (Karp, 2006, p. 181) the It may sound like a fair judgment†if one school has a better score than other schools, it must mean that the students are thriving and learning better and the teachers are teaching better. Unfortunately, this reward and punish system encourage schools and teachers to cheat for their own gain. Many teachers, usually from struggling schools, alter, inflate, or fabricate test scores on student achievement tests and intentionally correct students answers on the standardized tests. A 2011 USA Today investigation of six states and Washington DC found 1610 suspicious anomalies in ye ar-over-year test score gains. A confidential January 2009 memo, prepared for the DC school system by an outside analyst, and uncovered in April 2013, revealed that 191 teachers in 70 DC public schools were implicated in possible testing infractions, and nearly all teachers at one DC elementary school had students whose test papers showed high numbers of wrong-to-right erasures. (Greg Toppo, 2013) Another similar incident is the Atlanta cheating scandal. In Atlanta, 11 educators used to attend weekend pizza parties to correct students answers. Ultimately, in April 2015, 11 of those district employees were convicted of racketeering which carries a sentence of up to 20 years in prison. Even though these are rare occasions, not just students, teachers and schools are intentionally correcting the students initial answers of the standardized tests to get rewards for themselves. Some are punished for the illegal behavior, but if the multiple choice format or the reward and punish system w ere different, those 11 employees were not be sentenced to go to prison. Because of not only the reward system but also the public pressure regarding student test performance, regardless of the actual complexity behind the score, makes the students, teachers, principals, and school feel an immense weight (McNeil, 2000, p. 89). In conclusion, the schools are under so much pressure to get a high percentage on standardized tests and are being told what to do and teach. The several researches and studies, however, present the inadequate and unequal assessment of an academic achievement through the standardized test. In short, it cannot equally measure the educational development of the students in one classroom, let alone the world. When the standardized testing system has many flaws just in the United States, it would be more complex to use the system to assess the global improvement of Quality Education. The solution for a better system Some theorists in the educational field advise to abandon the standardised test completely and propose different ways of assessing academic achievement and Quality Education. Within the current context, however, standardized tests function as the core for all educational policy (Picower, 2015, p.22). The standardized test is deeply rooted in the global educational system that makes is nearly impossible to abandon. Contrary to their belief, I strongly think that, if approached correctly, standardized test can truly be the valid measurement of worldwide educational progress. We need to measure student learning and there is no other adequate and comprehensive way of measuring learning as of yet. The following paragraphs will explore why I argue, in contrary to the common belief, that the standardized testing has the potential to assess Quality Education. On the other hand, standardized test ensures equal education for all. The basic benchmark of the standardized test draws attention to the groups who need special attention. If we want to offer fair and equal quality education for all, there must be the core curriculum that can be measured with a test, so that proper actions can be taken to improve the situation. Without the standardized test, it is nearly impossible to know the difference between the academic achievement of Mongolian students and American students. That leads to my other point: if built properly, standardized tests can be critical to secure quality education to minority students. Many criticize the standardized testing for promoting poverty and segregation. Those discrimination, however, do not exist directly as a result of the standardized system. Rather, the system reflects the discrimination towards race, disability, and socioeconomic status that exist in the society. More thoughtful and inclusive way of designing the standardized test will ensure the halt of the reflection of social discrimination. It can even help educators to address weaknesses early in a students academic career, helping to prevent handicaps to their future. As for the test related stress, The US Department of Education stated that Although testing may be stressful for some students, testing is a normal and expected way of assessing what students have learned. Also, in 2001, University of Arkansas found that a vast majority of students do not exhibit stress and have a positive attitude towards standardized testing programs. The study is before NCLB Act in 2002; thus, the data might be hinting that too much testing is stressful, but reasonable amount of standardized testing can healthily promote educational improvement. The world needs critical thinkers who will tackle fatal global issues such as inequality, poverty, climate, and environmental degradation. Even now, many of the worlds brightest minds are working to find the solutions for the global issues. One example is Sustainable Development Goals from the UN. Reaching the SDGs by 2030 might sound nearly impossible; however, with deliberate plan and precise measuring system, it is attainable. Especially for the fourth goal, Quality Education, standardized testing system is crucial for smooth operation. Standardized testing can measure the academic achievement of the students around the globe while securing equal education to the minority; beyond the standardized testing lies a sustainable better future. Many obstacles, however, will arise as the world attempts to reach its goal for the future. It is our responsibility as the citizen of the world to take action for ourselves, our future, and most importantly, our Mother Earth.

Outline Of A Speech On Diabetes - 1263 Words

Final Informative Speech Outline I. Introduction: A. Attention Getter: How many of you have a family member, friend, or knows someone who has diabetes? B. Background Audience Relevance: Diabetes is a disease that now in days is becoming more common to society because of the lifestyle in which many of us eat and how easy and cheap it is to obtain unhealthy fast food. C. Speaker Credibility: my mom has been a diabetic for about 10 years I have learned a lot from personal experiences, doctors’ appointments, and research that I have recently done on the diabetes. D. Thesis: Learning about diabetes will give you a better understanding on the disease. E. Preview Main Points: First I will begin by talking about what type 1 and type 2 diabetes, second, what are the causes of diabetes and their symptoms, and finally what can a person with diabetes has to do to regulate diabetes. Transition to first main point: So first what is diabetes? II. Main Point 1: In order to have a better understanding about type 1 and type 2 diabetes you have to learn why a person gets diabetes in the first place. Sub-Point A: Diabetes is a disorder that is happening in your metabolism which causes people to have high blood sugar. According to the National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse last updated August 27, 2014 in our body our metabolisms job is to breaks down carbohydrates, sugars, and starches and turns them into glucose a sugar that is used for energy all over our body. Insulin is something ourShow MoreRelatedDiabetes- Informative Speech outline Essay892 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿INFORMATIVE SPEECH OUTLINE General Purpose: To inform Specific Purpose: To inform audience of the signs you can look for and types of diabetes. I. Introduction A. Attention Getter:   Show of hands. How many of you all have or know someone with Diabetes? B. 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The Role of Computer and Internet in Education Free Essays

string(129) " from school administrators and principals are of vital importance \(Carmichael, Burnett, Higginson, Moore, Pollard, 198\." CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER USE IN EDUCATION JAN Department VAN DEN AKKER, PAUL KEURSTEN and TJEERD PLOMP of Education, University of Twente, P. O. The Netherlands Abstract Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, There is an increasing awareness that disappointing experiences with the introduction of computers in education are a consequence of insufficiently taking into account factors that are crucial when introducing change in educational settings. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Computer and Internet in Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now Many of the problems in the literature show great similarity with the kind of problems often experienced in curriculum implementation. In this context the endeavors to make computer use an integrated part of classroom activities are analyzed. Emphasis will be laid on the interaction between teachers and courseware; elements for a more effective strategy for the integration of computer use in educational practice will be presented, with special attention to the design of support materials as an essential part of courseware. Introduction Despite many national and local initiatives, examples of successful computer use in classroom practice are still relatively rare. In many countries the number of computers in schools has considerably increased in recent years. However, little progress has been made: still few teachers are actual users; software use is often restricted to drill and practice type; the alignment with the curriculum pattern is poor. Research results (of both surveys and case studies) from many countries point to the conclusion that there is still a long way ahead before computer use will be effectively integrated in most classrooms (see e. g. Becker, 1986; Office of Technology Assessment [OTA], 1988, for the USA;, Chomienne, 1988; Olson Eaton, 1986, for Canada; Cox, 1987, for the U. K. ; Inspectorate, 1986; Plomp Van den Akker, 1988, for the Netherlands). There is an increasing awareness that these disappointing experiences are a consequence of insufficiently taking into account factors that are crucial when introducing change in educational settings. Many of the reported problems that schools and teachers face when implementing computer use show great similarity with the kind of problems often experienced in curriculum implementation (cf. Fullan, Miles, Anderson, 1987; Sheingold, Martin, Endreweit, 1987; Walker, 1986). For that reason we would like to analyze the endeavor to make computer use an integrated part of classroom activities 65 6 .I. VAN DEN AKKER et al from a curriculum implementation perspective. We shall start with an overview of the variables that can influence the process and outcomes of curriculum implementation. For the different categories of those variables we shall then discuss the literature on computer use in education. Emphasis will be laid on the interaction between teachers and courseware. Based on this pro blem analysis we shall present elements for a more effective strategy for the integration of computer use in the educational practice. Special attention will be paid to the design of (written) support materials as an essential part of courseware. An Overview of Factors Affecting Implementation _ Drawing upon the work of Fullan (1982) and of Van Velzen, Miles, Ekholm, Hameyer, and Robin (1985), we propose a framework for discussing factors influencing the implementation of innovations in the educational practice by distinguishing four categories of variables: national (and/or state and/or district) context; characteristics of the school (organization); external support; characteristics of the innovation itself. Within each category several variables can be mentioned: – National context central legislation and regulations; system of policy formation and decision making in educational affairs; time, resources and facilities made available for an innovation; proclaimed values and aims about an innovation; attitude of politicians and (other) opinion leaders about an innovation. School organization experiences with earlier innovations; role of the school leader(s); methods of decision making; available facilities (time, money, materials); internal co-operation and mutual support; distribution and exchange of information. External support inservice training; assistance with internal coaching and guidance personal contacts with – – staff development; for individual teachers; experts and colleagues from other schools. – Innovation characteristics relevance of the innovation for needs and problems of users; clarity of the goals and practical meaning of a change proposal; Implementation of Computers in Education 67 – complexity of innovation requirements, especially in teaching quality and practicality of the innovation products. ehavior; In the next sections we shall first summarize literature on the integration of computer use, as far as it relates to the first three categories (national context, school organization, and external support). We refer to those categories of variables as the conditionalfactors, because they are conditional for the ultimate use of products by teachers in their daily work. Afterwards we shall focus our attention on the characteristics of the innova tion product itself in relation to the teacher’s role. Conditional Which computer literature, emphasis Factors for the Integration of Computer Use research results about use in education? We but restrict ourselves on empirically based conditional factors can be found in the literature on do not intend to offer an exhaustive overview of this to a summary of some selected publications, with an sources. National Context Still little empirical research is done about the impact of variables in the national (state/district) context on the actual use of computers in the school practice. Descriptions of national policies on information technology in many countries are available (e. g. Beishuizen, Tobin Weston, 1988), but focused research efforts in this area are hard to find. Broad attention for policy variables is given by Fullan et al. (1987) in their study on the implementation of the new information technology in Ontario schools. Apart from obvious tasks as investing in hardware, software development, research, teacher training and the like, policy makers should also play a stimulating role in the planning and co-ordination of implementation activities. Proclamation of new aims for the educational system and encouragement â€Å"from above† for initiatives and activities in the field can be helpful for the many participants in the innovation. School Organization The influence of the school organization on the implementation of computer use has been studied more frequently. The results usually confirm the findings from the more general innovation literature. Encouragement and support from school administrators and principals are of vital importance (Carmichael, Burnett, Higginson, Moore, Pollard, 198. You read "The Role of Computer and Internet in Education" in category "Essay examples" ; Cox, Rhodes, Hall, 1988; Fullan et al. , 1987). Help from principals is especially necessary in providing for facilities for training, the purchase of hardware and software, the rearrangement of timetables and other organizational measures. Also conducive to the implementation process is a positive school climate where teachers give mutual s upport by exchanging ideas and experiences and by providing feedback (Carmichael et al. , 1985; Cox, 1987; Inspectorate, 1986). 68 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. A beneficial role can also be played by computer coordinators, especially if they combine computing expertise with strong interpersonal and organizational skills (Strudler Gall, 1988). Also measures have to be taken to secure long term supplies and maintenance of hardware and software (Bitter Gore, 1986; Wagshal, 1986). External Support A growing body of experience and research data has become available about effective components of inservice training and other forms of external support for schools and teachers in the use of computers. A criticism on past inservice approaches is that the emphasis on technical aspects was too strong, while too little attention was paid to the integration of computer use in the daily classroom practice and also to the skills in selecting and evaluating courseware ~~homienne, 1988; D’Arcy Gardner, 1988; Wiske et al. , 1988). Teachers need a strong support to overcome their (initial) problems of uncertainty and their concerns about changing teacher/student relationships and about accountability (OTA, 1988). There is a growing consensus about characteristics of inservice training that can increase its effectiveness (OTA, 1988; Stecher Solorzano, 1987): appropriate balance between lecture and (guided) practice; detailed curriculum guides and plans for the course plus lesson-related materials and hand-outs; clear training objectives; inservice lessons linked to teachers’ own instructional practice; peer interaction, including communication during hands-on activities; strategies for teaching heterogeneous groups; follow-up support and guidance. This (selective) literature review indicates a rough imilarity between conditional factors for both integration of computer use and curriculum implementation. Future, more focused, research activities are necessary to sharpen our insights in this area. Product Characteristics and the Teacher’s Role â€Å"Educators and educational researchers consistently cite one factor as central to the full development of technology’s use in the schools – the classroom teacher† (OTA, 1988, p. 87). For that reason it is important to take a closer look at the changes facing teachers at the implementation of computer use in their classroom practice. As Fullan (1982) has pointed out, nearly every innovation requires teachers to change on several dimensions: the use of new materials, alterations in their teaching behavior, and changes in their beliefs and attitudes. In this section we want to explore how certain characteristics of the new materials (especially courseware) can influence changes in teaching behavior and beliefs. From the general innovation literature we know that there are several product characteristics that can influence the fate of a certain innovation. First, we present a brief overview of this literature. Then we shall use this as a filter to screen the literature on computer use in education. Implementation of Computers in Education 69 Well-known discourses about influential (product) characteristics of innovations are delivered by Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) who describe features like observability, complexity, compatability, and relative advantage, and by Doyle and Ponder (3977-78) who refer to the practicality ethic of teachers, with criteria like instrumentality, congruence, and cost. An authorative summary of these characteristics is provided by Fullan (1982; see also Fullan et al. , 1987). He mentions the following characteristics, elucidated by some central questions: Need and relevance What is the need for and the appropriateness of the change? What is the priority of the efforts to implement the innovation relative to other concerns? Clarity How clear are the goals and essential features of the innovation? practical implications for the users? Complexity How clear are the How many components of instructional practice are affected and how much do they differ from existing practices and beliefs? How difficult is it to learn the necessary changes? Quality and practicality How well developed and tested are the products? How certain is the impact of the innovation? What is the trade-off between the actual benefits and the personal and organizational costs? Weaknesses in one or more of these characteristics usually cause major obstacles for implementation. Fullan (1982, p. 62) underlines the importance of individual perceptions in this respect: â€Å"ImpIementation is a problem of individuals developing meaning in relation to specific policy or program directions. † Although materials alone can never be sufficient for the implementation of innovation proposals by broad target groups of teachers, the potential influence of materials is great. Well designed and vafidated products can contribute substantially to the realization of educational changes (Crandall and Associates, 1982; Emrick Peterson, 1978; Van den Akker, 1988~). We proceed now with a short overview of research findings about the interaction between product characteristics and teachers in the domain of computer use. Courseware Quality and Teachers’ Problems There is a wide dissatisfaction about the quality of educational software and courseware (OTA, 1988). Some conclusions are: Much educational software is isolated material, badly attuned to the curriculum 0 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al (content, materials, strategies) in use (Inspectorate, 1986; Woodhouse Jones, 1988). Often computer use cannot be a process of simply incorporating new into old, but it requires reshaping what was there (Hawkins Sheingold, 1986). But also a warning is in place: if the software closely relates to the existing curriculum, it can indeed be easier for the teachers to use, but then it is often seen as just an â€Å"extra† and not fully integrated in the day to day practice (Cox, 1987). Thus, software should either support the goals of the existing curriculum or meet the needs for a curriculum change (Mallatratt, 1988). Much software has been developed for use by individual students, not taking into account the usual whole-class teaching and the practical constraints of a classroom with limited numbers of computers (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation [CERI], 1986). This restriction places a considerable demand on the planning and management skills of teachers. Much software is poorly documented (Jorde, 1985). User guides contain mainly â€Å"technical† information about operational aspects of the software. Support (print) materials for the teacher with suggestions how to integrate the program in the instructional process is frequently lacking (Inspectorate, 1988). â€Å"Most software does not yet sufficiently exploit the capacity of the computer to Drill and practice software continues to enhance teaching and learning. . dominate all subject areas† (OTA, 1988, p. 122). Furthermore, much of the early generation of software can be characterized by the â€Å"Quiz Syndrome† (Mackey, 1987). An innovation which appears to bring just one long question-answer routine gets a bad name. The available educational software covers only parts of the different subject matter domains (Inspectorate, 1988); most software is just â€Å"piecemeal† (Williams Williams, 1984). The lack of sufficient high quality materials obstructs the integration of computer use into the daily practice. Problems many teachers experience are the following: For various reasons it is difficult to select suitable software. Not only is software often poorly documented, but also many teachers lack the knowledge and skills for an effective evaluation of the software quality (Knupfer, 1986; Preece Jones, 1985). Moreover, there are only limited possibilities to preview potentially useful software before purchase (Balla, Gow, Burton, 1986; Mallatratt, 1988). Teachers often lack technical skills in using computers and software (CERI, 1986; Ridgway et al. , 1984). This often leads to uncertainty, especially when the level of computer familiarization of the teacher is the same as or even lower than that of the students (Carmicheal et al. , 1985; Heywood Norman, 1988). A consequence of this phenomenon may be that educational computing will be restricted to the limited level of expertise of the teacher. Teachers often experience unanticipated problems with their instructional roles (Carmicheal et al. , 1985; Cuban, 1986; Hawkins Sheingold, 1986; Wiske et al. , 1988). Computers challenge teachers’ existing instructional routines by requiring a shift from expository teaching towards a role in which the teacher is more of a partner and guide of the students. Many teachers feel uncomfortable about these changes and therefore try to minimize them (Elder, Gourlay, Johnstone, Wills, 1987; Olson, 1988; Plomp, Steerneman, Pelgrum, 1988). This factor is particularly Implementation f Computers in Education 71 – important because research has shown that the way a teacher integrates computer use through his ongoing instructional decisions is critical to the impact of computer use on learners and learning results (Wilson, 1988). Cox et al. (1988) observe that teachers frequently lack knowledge and skills for effective stimulation of students’ microcomputer activities, and thus children fail to learn what they might learn with judicious teacher intervention. Teachers experience many practical problems when they start to use computers (Carmicheal et al. 1985; Elder et al. , 1987; Inspectorate, 1986). Computer use demands from teachers many time-consuming management and organizational activities. Wiske et al. (1988) conclude that the major barrier for computer use is that it is unclear for teachers how the potential contribution of computer use can outweigh the costs involved. In summary we may conclude that the research on the integration of computer applications in education reveals many similar problems as described in the literature on curriculum implementation (cf. Fullan et al. 1987). Most factors that influence curriculum implementation also influence the integration of computer use in the instructional practice. An Infusion Approach for the Integration of Computer Use In this section we will try to identify elements of an effective strategy for the integration of computer use in education by analogy reasoning with approaches of effective curriculum implementation. Most teachers, if they are using computers at all, are still inexperienced users; the great majority are in the initial implementation phase. In this stage small-scale successful experiences are an important factor in stimulating the use of the innovation by teachers, both in the field of curriculum implementation (Van den Akker, 1988b) and computer integration (Fullan et al. , 1987). There are two components of successful experiences: first, the students attain clear learning results; second, the teacher succeeds in an effective lesson execution without major problems, and is aware of his own contribution in this respect. Such successful experiences can only take place when teachers have high quality courseware at their disposal. We define courseware as: a package comprising computer software and (mostly written) support materials. Since our analysis of implementation problems indicated that especially the support materials – if available – are of a poor quality, we shall focus on that component (â€Å"lessonware†) of the courseware. In order to identify â€Å"high quality† characteristics, we need to clarify what functions the materials should have for the teacher. Functions and Characteristics of Courseware As shown in the previous sections, integration of computer use by teachers is complex and involves them in learning new roles and unlearning old ones. Implementation can be 72 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. conceived as a learning process for the teacher in which changes are required in teaching behavior as well as in beliefs, attitudes and understanding. A literature review of Van den Akker (1988b, c) on curriculum implementation, teacher planning, and general learning theories provides some answers to the question of how materials can contribute to this learning process of teachers in their initial implementation phase. The literature on curriculum implementation reveals that in teachers’ initial implementation efforts personal self-concerns dominate, changing via more task-oriented concerns to concerns about the impact of the curriculum on learners (Loucks Lieberman, 1983). Research indicates that this change model also applies on computer integration (Cicchelli Beacher, 1985, 1987; Wiske et al. , 1988). Thus, at present, where most teachers are still in the initiation phase where personal survival concerns dominate, courseware materials should support the teachers by anticipating as much as possible potential user problems and by offering practical advice to prevent or solve such problems. From research on teacher planning (Clark Peterson, 1986) it has become more evident that changing the practice of teaching requires more attention to the stage of pre-active planning. The lesson planning approach is of crucial importance for the lesson execution, and, ultimately, also for learning-by-reflection of the teacher afterwards. Literature on general learning theories indicates that (intensive) orienting activities yield more precise and reasoned plans for action. Courseware may activate and support teacher planning by providing a clear orientation to the teaching task, by pointing to critical features of (computer assisted) lessons and by making suggestions about how to deal with emergent problems during the instructional process. From this analysis we may conclude that courseware, intended for teachers’ initial use, should contain a large amount of procedural specifications: very accurate how-to-do-it advice focused on essential but apparently vulnerable elements of the curriculum. This means that the support materials should not only contain â€Å"technical† information about the use of the computer program, but also detailed advice about the instructional process (cf. Fullan et af. , 1987). With the help of such materials, the teachers should be stimulated to a task orientation and to concrete role-taking experiences and should be supported with practical advice for successful lessons. In order to produce such courseware, one has to follow a very careful development approach, with much attention for formative evaluation and revision of the materials. Obviously, the technical certainty of the software must be guaranteed and the program should be easy to use (Fullan et al. , 1987). Special efforts have to be made to detect teachers’ problems with the use of the courseware in their classroom situation. These evaluation findings should lead to the incorporation of procedural suggestions for the teachers in the support materials about how to prevent or solve such problems. It seems desirable that the development of the software and the support materials (â€Å"lessonware†) proceeds in close interaction. More or less simultaneous design, construction and evaluation activities can further the interwoveness of the different courseware components. Such an approach may also increase the chances to produce courseware that is innovative from an instructional and curricular perspective (cf. Hawkins Sheingold, 1986). Implementation of Computers in Education 73 An Illustrative Study An explorative study along these lines has been done by Keursten (1988), who developed courseware for primary science. He pointed out that there is a remarkable resemblance between major implementation problems of teachers with a new approach in (activity-based) science education and the earlier discussed problems with the integration of computer use. Van den Akker (1988a, b) mentioned the following key problems for teachers in the science domain: complex and time-consuming lesson preparation; a lack of background knowledge and skills (causing a lack of self-confidence); great difficulties in changing the didactical role; insufficient view of possible learning outcomes. In the research project of Van den Akker (1988a, b), a successful effort was made to diminish these problems by providing teachers with many, carefully tested procedural specifications in curriculum materials. Keursten (1988) applied the same sort of specifications in courseware for a series of seven lessons (on the theme â€Å"weather†; final grade of primary school), to be used by teachers who had neither experience with computer use nor with an activity-based science approach. The courseware package consisted of: written lesson materials containing subject matter information and directions for lesson preparation and execution; educational software with a very succinct manual about its operation; and some student materials. The procedural specifications for the package were divided over the written lesson materials (â€Å"lessonware†) and the software manual. In the â€Å"lessonware† the following categories were incorporated: i general characterization of the series of lessons in terms of objectives, content, time (also division of time over different lessons), suggestions for detecting learning effects. ackground information about the subject matter so that it is not necessary for the teacher to refer to other sources during the lesson preparation. Per lesson were included: a short outline of the lesson; suggestions for the lesson preparation, including issues like: necessary learning aids, classroom organization, structure of the lesson in keywords, personal preparation by the teacher. guidelines for lesson execution with suggestions for instructional activities, for classroom organization, and for guidance of the students. The manual of the computer program consisted of: directions for the use of the computer (especially important for teachers without experience with computers); description of the objectives (short, because it is also part of the written lesson materials); directions for the use of software (important, as it must answer all possible questions teachers may have in using the program); points of attention about the siting of the computer(s). – – – – 74 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. Two basic elements in the design approach should be underlined. First, the curricular perspective was in the forefront; the computer software was developed as a tool for realizing the formulated curriculum aims. Second, the primary focus in the elaboration of the materials was on the tasks and user problems of the teachers – and not on the possibilities of the software. An evaluation of the use of this courseware with five teachers had positive results. The teachers were able to use the package as meant by the designers. They hardly experienced any technical problems and adequately realized the activity-based science approach. Also the reactions and learning outcomes of the students were very satisfying. A general conclusion of this study was that the characteristics of the courseware seem very appropriate to reduce implementation problems. Therefore follow-up research has been started for further investigation of this approach. Conclusion The integration of computer use in the instructional practice of teachers â€Å"infusable† support materials (cf. Wilson, 1988). We would like to summarize our infusion approach as follows: benefits by eachers can start their computer use with short and well organized applications; successful use is strongly advanced by carefully designed and validated procedural specifications in the different courseware components; based on these successful experiences, teachers acquire clarity about the meaning and potential of the innovation, gain confidence in their own competence, and develop their own view of the appropriateness of the innovation for their students and them selves. Without such early â€Å"high quality† experiences, teachers’ judgments about the relevance and practicality of computer use can only be superficial. As Wiske et al. (1988) found, the initial reservations of teachers about computer use diminish after experiencing examples of computer use that yield clear educational benefits. A real integration of computer use in the curriculum can only be realized when teachers recognize the surplus value of computer use. Successes in the early implementation phase are crucial for motivating teachers to further activities and to elicit commitment to the change efforts. We have strongly concentrated our arguments on the role of products (courseware) in the process of implementation. Of course we realize – see the first part of our article – that there are many other variables at stake. But we agree with Collis (1988) that it makes sense to focus on those variables which are relatively easy to manipulate. And, within the then available options, we have strong indications that a sophisticated design of the support materials within courseware can have a great impact on implementation activities and outcomes. We presume that this impact can be increased when the use of such products is combined with inservice training (cf. OTA, 1988). Such integrated support activities seem to have the greatest potential to enable teachers to an effective integration of computer use in their classroom practice. Implementation of Computers in Education 75 References Akker, J. J. H. van den (1988a). Ontwerp en implementatie van natuuronderwijs [Design and implementation of science education]. Lisse: Swets Zeitlinger. Akker, J. J. H. van den (1988b). The teacher as learner in curriculum implementation. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 20 (l), 47-55. Akker, J. J. H. van den (1988c, April). Product design and curriculum implementation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans. Balla, J. , Gow, L. , Burton, P. (1986). Computers in the teaching process and software development: Cooperation is the key. Education Computing, 2, 265-271. Becker, H. J. (1986). Instructional uses of school computers: Reports from the 1985 national survey (Issue l-6). 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Social Media Strategy and Management â€Free Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about theSocial Media Strategy and Management. Answer: Introduction: In this report we discuss about the social media strategy of Woolworths. Before discussing about the social media strategy of Woolworths, lets talk about the Woolworths. Woolworth was founded on 5th December 1924, and in 1927 it becomes a chain and 2nd store of Woolworth open. Woolworths open sixteen stores till 1930 across New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia and New Zealand (Woolworths Limited, n.d.). And currently Woolworths growth plan is depend on these strategic plans: maximize the value of its shareholders; increase its leadership in the products of food and liquor, develop the new ways for growth and maintain the record their company of building new businesses for growth. According to Woolworth behavior of customers are changed and now they have more choices, therefore Woolworth develops new ways to meet the need of customers. In this changing era only retail store outlets are not enough for selling the products and providing services to the customers, a new platfor m is developed for the customers that are social media platforms. Now, customers are updated and they want everything on their finger-tips which increase the need of proper strategy related to social media. This report contains the discussion on importance of social media strategy for Woolworths and also a brief discussion on various aspects of social media such as social media presence, social media audience, social media marketing, social media technologies, ethics, privacy security. Woolworths try to respond to this new era with their growth strategies and found a new way of growth and opportunity. Woolworths also create new ways for shopping for their customers (Woolworths Limited, n.d.). in last we conclude the report with brief conclusion. Social Media Strategy: Social media strategy defines how social media can be used also its need: For internal and external social communications. Used as a tool to manage internal external reputation of brand and also monitor the same. Help in developing collaborative relationships. Social media helps in developing the relationships by providing equipments and methods which facilitate conversation, help in sharing information and strengthen the relationship. From above discussion we can say that social media strategy not only defines relationships but also their value and provide tools to harness them, which helps in achieve a goal or sets of goal. Reasons for Using Social Media: Marketing: social media helps in understand the needs of customer and create a brand value. Employee Engagement: it helps in recruiting the new talent and also develops the culture of company. Collaboration: it helps in collaborate with the customers, suppliers and other partners (Tribal Caf, n.d.). Social media concept is very important for today business executives. Everyone is trying to find the new ways for using these platforms for making profits. Various platforms are there for making profits such as YouTube, Facebook, Second Life, and Twitter. (Kaplan Haenlein, 2009). Woolworth focus on their customers need and develop different framework for satisfying the needs of their customers. Nikki Cockroft, group head of online operations of Woolworth says "We put the customer first and then we've established our online strategy around that (Social Bakers, n.d.). According to Nikki their customers are not only have brand knowledge but they also have knowledge of technology which shows that customers are more informed. Social media plays very important role in todays life and Woolworths know this. Cockroft says that thorough social media they reach their customers and also satisfy them through their services.Various social media platforms are used by the company such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, YouTube, Instagram and Google+. Companys focused on the needs of their customers. Aspects of Social Media Strategy: Social Media Presence: Now a days business organization wants recognition on social media. Good social media presence helps businesses in their growth. Woolworth is also taking step forward in this way and tries to increase their presence on social media. Following are the ways which help in increase the presence of Woolworths on social media: Identify Goals and Objectives- first step towards the growth of social media presence is identifying the goals and objectives of organization. Before entering into social media, Woolworth ensures that how each platform of social media works, which type of audience is met on each platform. Understand the needs of audience: as above discussed Cockroft says that main aim of Woolworths is satisfying the needs of their customers. Understanding the needs of your audience will help you to interact with them in a better way. Include the icons on your website- include the icons of your social media platforms on website of company, this will increase the following of customers and also it connect the customers with you (Woolworths, n.d.). Link your profile to your website. Create a strategy for social media Provide benefit to the customers you reach. Use games and fun activities to attract the customers. Post valuable products on comfortable rates (Rampton, 2014). Social media audience: it includes the type of audience an organization wants to connect with. Various types of audience are there which an organization wants to connect such as: Current clients or customers, Potential clients or customers, Journalists and editors, Bloggers Suppliers. Majority online shopper of Woolworths is women and Woolworths trying to connect the men also for online shopping. Main online shoppers of Woolworth are in metropolitan areas like Johannesburg, Cape Town and then Durban leading the charge. In 2012 World Wide Worx conduct a research in which sales figures in South Africa in 2011 was recorded at R2.636 billion from online source. Cockroft says that innovation through digital media is a strong focus for Woolworths and it is a main part of their business strategy (Vorster, 2013). Social Media Marketing: For business organizations social media marketing plays a very important role in growth of their business. Research conducted by Hubspot says in 2014 92% marketers claimed that social media marketing is important and research conducted by social media examiner says 97% of organizations are entering in the world of social media and actively participate. There are some benefits of social media marketing are: Increase recognition of brand by customers. Enjoy high loyalty from customers. On social media companies react like humans and this is important because customers feel more comfortable with humans instead of companies. Increase the opportunities of growth (DeMers, 2014). In 2013 sales of Woolworths were $ 1.8 billion and their growth in sales start from 2011. This figure places the Woolworths in the list of fast growing retailer of Australia. Many moves like change in marketing strategy are the main reason of this growth. Social media marketing also plays very important role in this growth. The weakest performer of Woolworth was Big W, Woolworths department store, but when Ezibuy acquire Big W, it increase the revenue of Big W. Ezibuy is online retailer(Australia Business Review, 2014). Ethics Privacy Security of Social Media: In last months companies like Nestle, The Red Cross all made mistakes in handling social media. Woolworths also become a part of scam on face book. Woolworths is known from its tag line that is woolworths the fresh food people but recently this line becomes a problem for Woolworths. Users are start complaining on a picture posted by Jason Maloo on face book where doughnuts are labeled as fresh food. Photo gets 13820 likes and attracts 1819 comments. Woolworths acted quickly and remove the billboard and also make a statement on face book: Just letting you know that we are taking the billboard down as soon as we can. Our intention was to show one of the products that we bake fresh every day at our in store bakeries, but we appreciate that the image may have been confusing. After this case Woolworths share the advice to save one from disaster of social media: Act quickly: the main strength of Woolworths is there quick response. Woolworths acted quickly and remove the bill board which saves them from negative impression. Woolworths case is a good example of transparency on social media. Listen: it is important for companies that they listen carefully to their customers and reply quickly on their complaints and queries. It is a duty of company that they look what is going on under their roofs. Many organizations do not react on their consumers complaint which make negative impression and affect the reputation of brand. Respond in an appropriate manner: give response on the platform on which query has been raised and not on any other platform. There is no use if you are replying on twitter and issue is actually raised on face book. Know your consumers: organizations need employees who know about the internet and also the environment of network. Organizations cannot predict how consumers take the post but they must need some idea what to post and how to post. Introduce faster processes: business organization needs fast process which include online department also. It means that online team has to respond fast on any crisis that comes in a way of business (Densely, 2013; Gunkel, 2015). Social Media Technologies: social media change the way of doing business. Every person who has knowledge of digital ways of social media has number of opportunities (McCrory, 2015). Now organizations change the way and trends of doing business. Now there is no door to door selling. Traditional ways of doing business are modified and organizations which do not use social media platforms for doing business are still lacking behind. There are many ways through which social media technologies create values: Create the products after taking advice from customers. Analyzing the demand of particular product. Conduct research of market Grab and create more sales opportunities. Recruit employees Taking care of customers and understand their need (Bullas, n.d.). Discussion: This paper contains discussion about the social media strategy and its importance in growth of business organizations. Social media platforms not only develop the relationship between organizations but also provide a way to understand the need of customers. The perception about marketing is changed with the introduction of social media. New ways are open for marketers. Now organizations can easily connect with the customers (Flekel, n.d.).there are many reasons for using social media strategy and those reasons are marketing, employee management and collaboration. In this report we discuss about the aspects of social media strategy. There are various aspects of social media strategy which are Social media presence, Social media marketing, Social media audience, Social media technologies and ethics and security. We discussed about the Woolworths strategy in this report. Our discussion is basically surrounded on benefits of social media: Social media generates huge customer data which helps organizations to make connection with customers. It increase brand value and reputation of brand. Social media platforms are not expensive as compared to other advertisements programmes and give best results. Social media platforms increase sales and connectivity with customers. Through social media an organization can connect with customers all the time and provide 24/7 support. Organizations can keep eye on their competitors. Information can be share easily and in faster way with the customers. It strengthens the relationship (Copp, 2016; Potential, 2015). Conclusion: In last we can conclude that social media plays a very important role in the business organizations. Organizations which do not use platforms of social media for the growth of their business are lacking behind. While dealing with social media it is important that organizations behave ethically and listen their employees. Large number of Consumers connects directly through social media, so it is important that proper strategy is made for dealing with customers. Persons who have knowledge of digital world have many opportunities. Social media is not only for making relations with customers, it is also used for recruiting talent and increasing the brand value of organization. Woolworth is live example of this. Woolworth deals very smartly with crises of social media and also participates actively. Company has major clients on social media and increases the sales of company. We also discuss the ways through which social media contributes in the growth of business. References: Australia Business Review, (2014). 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